R-3 Repository :: Browsing by Author "Martin, Randi C."

Browsing by Author "Martin, Randi C."

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A comparison of discrimination for speech and nonspeech and implications for theories of speech perception
(1988) Breedin, Sarah DuBois; Martin, Randi C.
The present paper reviewed the literature supporting and contradicting three theories of categorical perception in speech; the specialized speech processor theory, the cue duration theory, and the acoustic percept theory. Three experiments were then carried out to further investigate these theories. The first experiment compared subjects' perception of speech and three types of nonspeech stimuli (simple nonspeech, complex nonspeech, and reverse speech) and the effect of training on subjects' ability to discriminate these stimuli. The second experiment, dealt with a failure to replicate Pisoni (1977) using complex speech stimuli with the same parameters. The third experiment, compared speech and nonspeech perception in aphasic patients. Results failed to lend support to the specialized speech processing theory. Support for the cue duration theory and acoustic percept theory was mixed.
A phonological short-term deficit: A case study
(1997) Hanten, Gerri; Martin, Randi C.
The performance of a highly literate subject, BS, was assessed on tests of short-term memory. He demonstrated a pattern of performance similar to that of patients having a phonological short-term memory deficit. His profile included an exaggerated phonological similarity effect for auditorily, but not visually presented materials, the absence of a recency effect, a reversed modality effect, and difficulty repeating non-words. In contrast to previously described phonological short-term memory patients, BS performed fairly normally in a foreign language learning task, though his acquisition rate was slower than that of control subjects. This finding is counter to current theory which suggests intact phonological short-term memory is necessary to learning of new phonological forms. Further investigation of BS's deficit suggested that his areas of preserved performance were the result of strategic reliance upon semantic, lexical or orthographic factors. Thus support is demonstrated for theories of short-term memory that propose multiple components contributing to short-term memory.
All cumulative semantic interference is not equal: A test of the Dark Side Model of lexical access
(2013-09-16) Walker Hughes, Julie; Schnur, Tatiana T.; Martin, Randi C.; Fischer-Baum, Simon
Language production depends upon the context in which words are named. Renaming previous items results in facilitation while naming pictures semantically related to previous items causes interference. A computational model (Oppenheim, Dell, & Schwartz, 2010) proposes that both facilitation and interference are the result of using naming events as “learning experiences” to ensure future accuracy. The model successfully simulates naming data from different semantic interference paradigms by implementing a learning mechanism that creates interference and a boosting mechanism that resolves interference. This study tested this model’s assumptions that semantic interference effects in naming are created by learning and resolved by boosting. Findings revealed no relationship between individual performance across semantic interference tasks, and measured learning and boosting abilities did not predict performance. These results suggest that learning and boosting mechanisms do not fully characterize the processes underlying semantic interference when naming.
An investigation of semantic and associative relatedness and semantic short-term memory in speech production
(2004) Biegler, Kelly Ann; Martin, Randi C.
Eight experiments investigated the role of semantic and associative relatedness and short-term memory in speech planning. Subjects produced a conjoined noun phrase corresponding to picture pairs that were semantically related only, semantically and associatively related, and associatively related only. Interference effects, i.e., longer onset latencies were observed for neurologically intact undergraduates and elderly controls in both semantic conditions but were not apparent in the associative only condition. Interference effects only occurred under the following conditions: (1) The degree of semantic relatedness was high between picture pairs. (2) Each picture was presented several times. (3) Related and unrelated matched pairs occurred in the same block and (4) Several pairs appeared from the same category. A phonological STM patient showed interference effects for semantically related pairs within the range of elderly controls. However, a semantic STM patient showed mixed results across several experiments. His inconsistent performance pattern was attributed, in part, to long term priming effects resulting from repeated testing with the same materials. Overall, the results suggest that the lexical-semantic information for both pictures was planned prior to production, and that semantic and associative relatedness differentially affect planning in speech production.
Aphasic patients' comprehension and production: Contrasting function words and content words
(1990) Yaffee, Laura Shoifet; Martin, Randi C.
This study investigates the function word deficits in aphasic patients and, in particular, agrammatic Broca's aphasics. Several explanations for the function word problem are addressed including a function word vocabulary deficit theory, a general syntactic deficit theory, and an abstract word deficit theory. Subjects with varying degrees of agrammatism were tested on a variety of production, comprehension, and reading, and syntactic tests which isolate semantic and syntactic aspects of both function and content words in order to better define the nature of the function word deficits in agrammatism.
Can semantic knowledge organization be revealed through automatic semantic priming?
(1990) Shelton, Jennifer Rose; Martin, Randi C.
Many researchers have assumed that testing for semantic priming in a lexical decision task assesses whether aphasic patients have preserved automatic semantic processing. However, research with normal subjects has shown that priming in lexical decision may result from controlled processing (e.g. Balota & Lorch, 1986). The present research developed a lexical decision task that would reflect automatic priming and tested aphasic patients on this task. Also, the nature of the semantic knowledge revealed through priming was investigated by examining priming for words that are semantically related but share no associates (e.g. poem-novel). Contrary to the findings of Milberg & Blumstein (1981), automatic priming was obtained for a Broca's aphasic. Also, priming was not revealed for semantically related words sharing no association, indicating that automatic priming relies on lexical associations between words, not semantic knowledge. Automatic semantic priming does not appear to be a useful measure for assessing semantic knowledge organization.
Competition and inhibition in lexical retrieval: Are common mechanisms used in language and memory tasks?
(2007) Biegler, Kelly Ann; Martin, Randi C.
The following series of experiments examined whether common mechanisms are involved in word retrieval within language and memory domains. Four patients with short-term memory (STM) deficits were examined; however, two of the patients showed a consistent impairment in inhibiting irrelevant verbal information as well. To the extent that repeatedly retrieving verbal items from the same category would require the capacity to suppress competing items to select the target, we investigated whether patients with a verbal inhibitory deficit, in addition to a reduced STM capacity, would be impaired in retrieving items in a semantic context relative to STM patients who do not display a similar verbal inhibition deficit and normal control subjects. Experiments 1- 4 consisted of language tasks which required the repeated naming or matching of items in a semantic or unrelated context. The findings revealed that verbal inhibition patients showed the greatest degree of difficulty during picture naming relative to the matching tasks in a semantic context, suggesting that they are susceptible to interference from semantic competitors to a greater extent at a lexical level. Experiments 5 - 7 consisted of recall and recognition memory tasks with items in a semantically related or unrelated context. Experiments 5 and 6 showed that while STM patients and controls displayed a similar degree of interference for items in a semantic context, STM patients can recall and recognize items near or within the range of controls when demands on STM capacity are minimal during encoding. However, Experiment 7 showed that recall can decline for patients with STM deficits when items are processed more rapidly during encoding. The results from Experiments 5 - 7 suggest that interference among items from the same category can occur in memory tasks (at a conceptual level), but verbal inhibition patients are not affected to a greater degree than control subjects. The overall findings are interpreted within the framework of spreading activation models, and provide implications for potential differences in competition and selection demands at lexical and conceptual levels of representation.
Contributions of phonological and semantic short-term memory to sentence comprehension in normal and head injured children
(2000) Hanten, Gerri; Martin, Randi C.
The relation of short-term memory to sentence comprehension was investigated in 4 children who had sustained severe closed head injury. Two of the patients showed dissociation in performance on short term memory tasks. One of the patients, CS showed a pattern of performance on short term memory tasks consistent with a phonological short term memory deficit. Another patient, CB, showed a pattern of performance which suggests a deficit in semantic memory. The dissociations in short term memory tasks exhibited by these patients corresponded to a dissociation in their performance on sentence processing tasks. On a sentence anomaly judgment task in which the memory load had to be maintained before the judgment could be made CS performed similarly to the Control subjects, while CB showed a deficit which was related to memory load. The opposite pattern was observed for a verbatim sentence repetition task on which CB's performance was within the normal range, but CS was very impaired. The results support models of short term memory that postulate separable components of semantic and phonological short term memory and the differential contribution of the two components to sentence comprehension.
Demonstrating semantic priming without using primes
(2008) Wang, Shu; Martin, Randi C.
Whether priming can occur in the absence of prime identification is a long debated question. The standard priming paradigm used to explore the issue has been criticized on methodological grounds. The present study introduces a new paradigm, in which there is no prime per se, only targets. Both words in a pair were presented for every-increasing durations until one was identified. Experiments 1 through 6 demonstrated highly reliable priming when the words were presented with no delay between them and when a mask of from 33 ms to 500 ms intervened between them. However, the priming effect declined as the delay increased and was non-significant at a full second. Results from Experiment 7 showed no effect of the proportion of related words on the size of the priming effect. However, an analysis of errors indicated that partial identification may play a role in the priming effect with this paradigm.
Distinct Neural Substrates Support Phonological and Orthographic Working Memory: Implications for Theories of Working Memory
(Frontiers, 2021) Purcell, Jeremy; Rapp, Brenda; Martin, Randi C.
Prior behavioral and neuroimaging evidence supports a separation between working memory capacities in the phonological and orthographic domains. Although these data indicate distinct buffers for orthographic and phonological information, prior neural evidence does indicate that nearby left inferior parietal regions support both of these working memory capacities. Given that no study has directly compared their neural substrates based on data from the same individuals, it is possible that there is a common left inferior parietal region shared by both working memory capacities. In fact, those endorsing an embedded processes account of working memory might suggest that parietal involvement reflects a domain-general attentional system that directs attention to long-term memory representations in the two domains, implying that the same neural region supports the two capacities. Thus, in this work, a multivariate lesion-symptom mapping approach was used to assess the neural basis of phonological and orthographic working memory using behavioral and lesion data from the same set of 37 individuals. The results showed a separation of the neural substrates, with regions in the angular gyrus supporting orthographic working memory and with regions primarily in the supramarginal gyrus supporting phonological working memory. The results thus argue against the parietal involvement as supporting a domain-general attentional mechanism and support a domain-specific buffer account of working memory.
Effects of causal explanations and conclusive evidence on subsequent beliefs
(1985) Kellam, Kathryn Laney; Anderson, Craig A.; Lane, David M.; Martin, Randi C.
An experiment to determine the effects of conclusive evidence on weakly-based beliefs was presented. The subjects explained a hypothetical relationship between two variables, and it was found that the subjects' opinions were systematically influenced as a result of their explanations. The subjects' judgments of conclusive evidence were not influenced by their earlier explanations, however. When the subjects' beliefs were measured after viewing the evidence, the following results emerged. The subjects' stated opinions were not affected by their earlier explanations, but were affected by the evidence that the subjects had viewed. However, when the subjects had to predict the outcome of an experiment designed to discover the true relationship between the variables of interest, there was a clear effect of the explanation manipulation and no effect of the actual evidence. In addition, a policy-capturing measure revealed a relationship between theory biases and the subjects' use of information.
Effects of imagining self-relevant behavioral scripts on subsequent intentions and behavior
(1985) Godfrey, Sandra S.; Anderson, Craig A.; Howell, William C.; Martin, Randi C.
This experiment examined the effects of imagining oneself acting out specific behavioral scripts on subsequent intentions and behavior. The imagination process was varied according to: (1) outcome of the script (decided to perform the behavior or decided not to); (2) amount of time allowed to imagine each scene in the script (fifteen seconds or three seconds ); and (3 ) order of the scenes (logical or jumbled ). Subjects' intentions were assessed by pre- and post-imagination rating scales. Later subjects were given an opportunity to perform the behaviors. The ratings shoved intention changes that corresponded with the outcome of the scripts that were imagined, but there were no significant effects of time or of order. The correlations between the behavioral responses and the post-imagination intentions were significantly higher than the correlations between the behavioral responses and the pre-imagination intentions. The results indicate that intentions and possibly behavior were affected by the imagination process.
Effects of semantic diversity and word frequency on single word processing
(American Psychological Association, 2022) Chapman, Curtiss A.; Martin, Randi C.
Some research suggests that semantic diversity (SemD), a measure of the variability of contexts in which a word appears, plays an important role in language processing, determining the availability of word representations (e.g., Adelman et al., 2006) and causing task-specific benefits or detriments to performance (e.g., Hoffman & Woollams, 2015). Some researchers have claimed that word frequency has no effect once such diversity measures are taken into account (Adelman et al., 2006). Taking advantage of the power of five large-scale databases, we investigated the effects of SemD, word frequency, and their interaction in five tasks, including word reading, lexical and concreteness decision, object picture naming, and word repetition. We found: (a) word frequency and SemD effects were consistently distinct; (b) effects of SemD were facilitatory in nearly all tasks, but inhibitory effects were also found; contrary to existing claims, we conclude that inhibitory SemD effects do not necessarily imply semantic selection requirements; (c) the presence of SemD effects minimally influenced the size of frequency effects when SemD was left uncontrolled, suggesting that SemD does not explain absent frequency effects in the patient literature; and (d) word frequency and SemD only interact in the largest data sets. Results are discussed in the context of rational models of memory (Anderson & Milson, 1989; Anderson & Schooler, 1991) and the Controlled Semantic Cognition framework (Lambon Ralph et al., 2017).
Effects of short-term memory deficits on speech planning and production
(2001) Freedman, Monica Lyn; Martin, Randi C.
Speech error data and empirical studies indicate that the scope of planning is larger for semantic/syntactic than phonological form representations in speech production. R. Martin and colleagues have demonstrated that some patients show dissociable impairments in the retention of semantic and phonological codes. The effect of these STM deficits on speech production was investigated using phrase and sentence production paradigms which manipulated semantic and phonological factors of the words to be produced. The first four experiments used a phrase production paradigm in which subjects named pairs of pictures and words manipulated for categorical relatedness (Experiments 1 and 2) or frequency (Experiments 3 and 4). The findings suggested that subjects planned both lemmas in these phrases but only the initial lexeme. Planning two lemmas created difficulty (large categorical interference effects) for patients with semantic retention deficits but not for patients with phonological retention deficits, supporting the contention that the semantic retention buffer involved in word span tasks is involved in speech production planning. In Experiment 5, subjects produced sentences having the content words in separate phrases to describe the configuration of two pictures. Control subjects and patients with phonological retention deficits did not show interference from categorically related pictures suggesting that they did not plan the final lemma of the sentence before articulation. ML still showed a large interference effect which reversed to facilitation when the pictures remained on the screen during his response. It was suggested that ML is forced to plan multiple lemmas before the pictures disappear, but when the pictures remain in view he may plan in a phrase-by-phrase fashion. In Experiment 6, ML showed a large benefit in onset latency but not accuracy when he could describe pictures in a sentence compared to phrase format whereas EA showed no such benefit. SJD also showed a benefit in accuracy for sentences compared to phrases, but her errors were qualitatively different than those of ML. The findings suggest that semantic retention is critical for speech planning for constructions requiring that multiple lemmas be planned in advance, while phonological retention is less critical because of the smaller scope of planning at this level.
Evaluating the Buffer vs. Embedded Processes Accounts of Verbal Short-term Memory by Using Multivariate Neuroimaging and Brain Stimulation Approaches
(2018-11-15) Yue, Qiuhai; Martin, Randi C.
Buffer versus embedded processes accounts of short-term memory (STM) have been under debate for decades. Buffer models propose dedicated storage for maintaining different types of information, where these buffers are separate from long-term memory (LTM) for those kinds of information. In contrast, embedded processes models argue against the existence of buffers, and claim STM consists of the activated portion of LTM. This thesis tested two competing models for verbal STM and obtained evidence from three experiments with novel multivariate neuroimaging and non-invasive brain stimulation approaches. From the perspective of cognitive neuroscience, buffer models predict that storage buffers depend on brain regions different from the LTM regions used to represent permanent knowledge, whereas embedded processes models predict that STM recruits the same neural substrate as LTM. Experiment 1 used functional magnetic resonance imaging with representational similarity analysis (RSA) to examine the correspondence of multi-voxel neural activation patterns with the theoretical representations for both phonological and semantic STM. In the phonological domain, a speech processing region in the left superior temporal gyrus (STG) showed RSA evidence of phonological coding during the encoding period, but not during the delay period. In contrast, the left supramarginal gyrus (SMG) showed RSA evidence of phonological storage during the delay period. In the semantic domain, the triangular part of the left inferior frontal gyrus showed RSA evidence of semantic coding during the encoding period, but not during the delay period. In contrast, some posterior regions such as the left angular gyrus, the left posterior middle temporal gyrus and an anterior region in the left middle frontal gyrus showed RSA evidence of semantic retention during the delay period, with the angular gyrus allowing for decoding of either phonological and semantic STM, depending on the task context. Results of Experiment 1 illustrated that different regions were involved in encoding and maintenance for phonological and semantic STM respectively. Experiment 2, using nonword stimuli, tested distractor interference effects on phonological STM. Although the speech processing region in the left STG showed RSA evidence of phonological storage for these materials during the delay period, such evidence was absent when distractors were presented. However, the proposed buffer region in the left SMG showed RSA evidence of phonological retention even in the presence of distractors during the delay period. Results of Experiment 2 suggested that the buffer region played a more important role in phonological STM in the face of distracting stimuli. Experiment 3 used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to test the necessity of the brain regions implicated in phonological STM from Experiments 1 and 2. An effect of TMS on response time for a STM recognition task was observed when the left SMG was stimulated during the delay period, whereas stimulation at the left STG or an occipital control region had no effect on behavioral performance. Results of Experiment 3 confirmed the causal role of the left SMG in phonological STM. Taken together, converging evidence from three experiments provided greater support for a buffer account than an embedded processes account of verbal STM. General implications for the buffer vs. embedded processes debate, as well as implications for theories of the neural basis of working memory are discussed.
Inhibition versus over-activation in word selection: Evidence from aphasia
(2007) Crowther, Jason Everett; Martin, Randi C.
Two nonfluent aphasic patients, ML and AR, and two fluent aphasic patients, LC and LW, along with older controls were tested on tasks involving semantic blocking and lexical selection. In Experiment 1, a repeated picture-naming task manipulating semantic blocking and presentation rate, both nonfluent patients showed growing semantic interference across trials, while the other subjects did not. In Experiment 2, a corresponding comprehension task, ML showed increasing semantic interference while AR showed a lack of repetition priming. Experiment 3 was a category fluency task in which AR performed very poorly and ML performed similarly to the fluent patients. Experiment 4 was a sentence completion task, and no evidence was found that the number or relatedness of lexical competitors caused any difficulty for the nonfluent patients. It was concluded that ML suffers from deficient semantic inhibitory mechanism while AR suffers from an under-activation of lexical representations.
Inhibitory control mechanisms and their role in task switching: A multi-methodological approach
(2013-05-13) Allen, Corinne; Martin, Randi C.; Schnur, Tatiana T.; Oswald, Frederick L.; Kemmer, Suzanne E.; Basak, Chandramallika
Executive control allows us to ignore distraction and switch between tasks in a flexible, yet organized fashion. While a hallmark of controlled behavior, distinctions among executive control processes are not thoroughly agreed upon. The present work explored the organization of two of these executive control processes, inhibition and shifting, and their relationship to each other. There were two primary goals. The first goal was to investigate the distinction among inhibitory control processes, as “inhibition” has oftentimes been considered a unitary construct. For example, there is evidence that response-distractor inhibition, which involves resolving interference from dominant responses or distractors in the external environment, is different from resistance to proactive interference (PI), which involves overcoming interference from previously relevant representations in memory. Using aging, neuropsychology, and individual differences methodologies, I investigated the unity and diversity of inhibitory control mechanisms. The healthy aging and neuropsychological evidence supported a distinction between response-distractor inhibition and resistance to proactive interference. However, when controlling for processing speed, the individual differences work suggested a need for further specification, as only a subset of these tasks emerged in the single factor model that provided the best fit to the data. The second goal was to explore how inhibitory control processes interact with task switching, as some theoretical accounts of task switching have suggested that switch costs result from the need to overcome interference from the previously relevant task. Inconsistent with these theories, I found little relation between inhibitory control and measures of global and local task switching, and instead, working memory served as the best predictor of these shifting measures. In contrast, inhibitory control was related to the backward inhibition abilities of older adults. These findings are discussed within a theory of working memory that accounts for the patterns of results found across the different methodologies.
Investigating the relation between phonological working memory and speech production
(2021-07-12) Horne, Autumn; Martin, Randi C.
Fluent speech production requires interaction between the language processing system and many other cognitive systems, including working memory (WM). However, there are still unanswered questions of how exactly language and WM relate. Previous evidence suggests that verbal WM consists of separable semantic and phonological components which have different relations to language processing (Martin, Rapp, & Purcell, 2020). Recent neuropsychological work replicated a previously reported relation between semantic WM and the elaboration of content in utterances and also reported a relationship between the rate of spontaneous narrative production and phonological WM (Martin & Schnur, 2019). The latter finding was unexpected because the default scope of phonological planning has been considered to be quite small, making few demands on phonological WM. In the current work, we tested the hypothesis that the relation between phonological WM and the rate of narrative production is due not to phonological WM capacity per se, but rather a shared phonological retrieval process that affects both the efficiency of retrieval of words in narrative speech and the rate of rehearsal in supporting performance in the phonological WM task. In Experiment 1, we examined the relations between single word production latencies, phonological WM, and rehearsal rate using an individual differences approach. If the phonological retrieval hypothesis is correct, we should find a relationship between single word production latencies and phonological WM performance. Additionally, we should observe a relation between phonological WM and rehearsal rate. The first prediction was confirmed in that phonological WM related naming to picture naming latencies for lower but not higher frequency items. However, rehearsal rate was unrelated to phonological WM performance when rehearsal rate was measured with the speed of repeating a single word, thus arguing against a role for rehearsal in phonological WM performance. To further investigate whether phonological retrieval supports rehearsal in the phonological WM tasks, Experiment 2 tested participants’ single word production and phonological WM using tasks that either do (i.e., standard word recall or matching span) or do not (i.e., speeded WM tasks) allow for rehearsal. We predicted that phonological WM would be related to single word production when the phonological WM task allowed for rehearsal, but not when the task discouraged it. In contrast to these predictions, performance on the standard WM tasks did not relate to picture naming latencies, whereas for two of the speeded tasks, such relations were found, with the relations being stronger for low frequency items. The failure to find a relation of WM performance to speech rate in Experiment 1 and the relation of picture naming latencies to WM in speeded WM tasks in Experiment 2 call into question the role of rehearsal in WM performance. Consequently, these findings suggest that other explanations for the relationship between narrative language production and phonological WM—including general processing speed and output phonological buffer capacity—should be explored.
Lexical selection in the semantically blocked cyclic naming task: the role of cognitive control and learning
(Frontiers Media, 2014) Crowther, Jason E.; Martin, Randi C.
Studies of semantic interference in language production have provided evidence for a role of cognitive control mechanisms in regulating the activation of semantic competitors during naming. The present study investigated the relationship between individual differences in cognitive control abilities, for both younger and older adults, and the degree of semantic interference in a blocked cyclic naming task. We predicted that individuals with lower working memory capacity (as measured by word span), lesser ability to inhibit distracting responses (as measured by Stroop interference), and a lesser ability to resolve proactive interference (as measured by a recent negatives task) would show a greater increase in semantic interference in naming, with effects being larger for older adults. Instead, measures of cognitive control were found to relate to specific indices of semantic interference in the naming task, rather than overall degree of semantic interference, and few interactions with age were found, with younger and older adults performing similarly. The increase in naming latencies across naming trials within a cycle was negatively correlated with word span for both related and unrelated conditions, suggesting a strategy of narrowing response alternatives based upon memory for the set of item names. Evidence for a role of inhibition in response selection was obtained, as Stroop interference correlated positively with the change in naming latencies across cycles for the related, but not unrelated, condition. In contrast, recent negatives interference correlated negatively with the change in naming latencies across unrelated cycles, suggesting that individual differences in this tap the degree of strengthening of links in a lexical network based upon prior exposure. Results are discussed in terms of current models of lexical selection and consequences for word retrieval in more naturalistic production.
Phonemic priming in the lexical decision task : Evidence for graphemic dependence
(1985) Jensen, Cary Robb; Martin, Randi C.; Lane, David M.; Howell, William C.
Hillinger (198) reported that a target word was identified as a real word faster when it was preceded by a phonetically related prime than by a neutral prime. He found that this facilitation occurred even when the prime and target were graphemically dissimilar. On the basis of this he concluded that activation spread automatically from the lexical entry of the prime to phonologically related lexical entries. The series of experiments reported in this thesis were designed to investigate several aspects of Hillinger's experiments. Hillinger's findings were replicated when his design was employed. Further investigations showed that minor variations in this design resulted in very different patterns of facilitation and inhibition. While it was demonstrated that lexical decisions to word targets are facilitated, apparently automatically, when the targets are preceded by graphemically similar-phonemically similar primes, no such facilitation was observed when graphemically dissimilar-graphemically similar primes were used. These results were found even when subjects were required to access the phonology of the primes. It was concluded that phonetic facilitation is the result of a process of structure that is based both on phonology and orthography.

Browsing by Author "Martin, Randi C."

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