Browsing by Author "Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr."
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Item Adult notions of children's perceptions of consumer product risk(1996) Hammond, Amy J.; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.Consumer product risk perception research has traditionally employed adult subjects assessing adult risk, but little work has explored children's perceptions. Because adults structure the environment of children, it is important to understand not only how children assess risk for themselves, but how adults assess risk for children and how adults think children assess risk. This study examined the risk perceptions of 7-8 year old children and the perceptions which parents and non-parents have for and attribute to children. It was found that adults see the world as more hazardous for children than for adults, but predict that children do not see the hazards. Children do recognize product hazards, but do not see the world as hazardous as adults see it for them, nor do they see it as hazard-less as adults predict they will. This suggests that adults' mental framework, while inaccurate, is still likely to encourage children's safety.Item An examination of consequence probability as a determinant of precautionary intent(1991) Desaulniers, David Roger; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.This study examined the relationship between consequence probabilities and decisions concerning self-protective behavior. The hypothesis put forth was that the probabilities associated with many common risks are at a level at which variations in probability have little influence on risk decisions. Subjects were presented with hypothetical risk situations in which consequence probability, consequence severity, and the costs of precautionary actions were explicitly stated and systematically manipulated. Decisions concerning the likelihood of taking a specific precautionary action in response to these risks were examined as a function of these three factors. The results revealed a "probability equivalence" effect, ranges of probabilities over which precautionary intent was essentially invariant, and that these ranges were highly dependent on consequence severity. In general, precautionary intent decreased as a function of decreasing consequence probability. However, for situations with low consequence severity, precautionary intent began to stabilize, trending towards an apparent minimum at low probability levels. Increasing consequence severity also had the effect of decreasing the "probability threshold", the probability level below which subjects were unlikely to take precautionary action. Increasing precautionary costs was also found to consistently depress willingness to take precautions. Precautionary intent was also examined as a function of several characteristics of the decision makers. Most scenarios revealed that levels of precautionary intent increased with age. In addition, in more than half of the scenarios, males were less inclined to take precautions than females. Analyses at the individual subject level revealed considerable variability in probability threshold and equivalence effects, indicating that the use of probabilities in risk decisions is highly dependent on the characteristics of the decision maker and the risk situation. Collectively the findings support the notion that probability information can influence decisions concerning precautionary intent, but that the probability equivalence effect may render consequence probability a poor discriminator when judgments are made concerning similar risks. The results suggest that the probability effects were products of subjects' informal cost-benefit analyses as opposed to a failure to perceive meaningful differences in the probabilities.Item Components of perceived risk for consumer products(1995) Young, Stephen Lee; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.Three studies were conducted to discover the underlying components of perceived risk. The first two studies examined two statistically and qualitatively different lists of rating items, and demonstrated that a principal components solution could produce similar results between them. These two solutions demonstrated that, when forming perceptions about risk, people consider the Hazardousness of potential risks, their Familiarity with the products, and the Technological nature of the risks. The third experiment extended previous findings by considering subject, as well as product, characteristics. This study demonstrated that there were three distinct subject types: Fearful, Fearless and Informed. These subject groups attended to different product information when forming perceptions of risk. In all, these studies provide a more complete understanding of the nature of risk perception.Item Contemporary occupational health and safety efforts: Effects of specific occupational injuries on subsequent accident involvement(1994) Vaubel, Kent Patrick; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.Behavior as related to occupational danger was explored in this research by examining industrial workers' reactions to accidents they had on the job. An observational study was conducted using longitudinal data to investigate relationships between hypothesized antecedent conditions and the occurrence of accidents at a large petrochemical refining and manufacturing complex. Models were developed that indicated the extent to which job-related injuries affected the duration of subsequent accident-free periods prior to another accident. Results indicated that a worker's job category and cumulative accident history as well as characteristics associated with previous accidents reliably influenced accident propensity. The tendency to be involved in accidents was unrelated to seasonal or weekly influences. Results are discussed in terms of the relative magnitude of various system factors on accident liability. It is anticipated that the theoretical and analytical techniques employed will be useful in developing strategies for clarifying the mechanisms through which workers perceive, assess and respond to danger in the workplace and enhancing decisions with regard to the targeting of prevention efforts.Item Unknown Costs and benefits: The role of individual differences and warning labels in safety decision-making(2007) Smith, Danielle P.; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.The impact of the physical design elements on the effectiveness of warning labels has been well researched over the past few decades. This research extends warning design research by applying a value-expectancy model to safety decision-making (DeJoy, 1999a) by explicitly examining how a well-designed warning label impacts perceptions of the costs and benefits, or expected value, of using a product. This problem is examined within the context of over-the-counter dietary supplements used to lose weight---a product with perceived value in certain groups and with two potential cost-benefit analyses associated with it (using the pills and seeing a doctor first). First, a qualitative study was conducted in order to determine what consumers and potential consumers know about the safety of dietary supplements. Further, Study 1 (n = 25) gathered information regarding what costs and benefits participants (may) consider when deciding whether or not to use diet pills and when deciding whether or not to see a physician before using the pills. The Study 1 findings were used to craft two warning labels that were used in Study 2 ( n = 174). The warning labels were either framed to highlight consequences of each hazard presented or were framed to be more neutral and only present hazard information, leaving the participant to infer consequences. Interestingly, although the consequence label increased expected compliance, in accord with past research (e.g. Laughery, Vaubel, Young, Brelsford, and Rowe, 1993), the consequence label only significantly increased the perceived costs associated with the precautionary action (i.e. visiting a doctor before using) and not with using the pills. These results, along with the findings relevant to individual differences, may help to identify instances where well-designed warnings do not always yield compliance in the field. That is, though warning labels may be impact participant perceptions of expected compliance, they may not impact perceptions of the precautionary action in expected ways.Item Unknown Evaluating organizational response to a cognitive problem: A human factors approach(2001) Serig, Elizabeth May; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.The commission of error is often perceived as the result of such internal attributes as negligence, laziness, carelessness, and inattention. In organizational settings, such a perception often leads to the administration of punitive actions against the responsible individual. Recent research on error, however, has moved thinking from a "conventional wisdom" perspective of human error to a systems perspective. According to this systems perspective, humans are remarkably reliable "stand-alone" systems, and errors tend to arise primarily when humans interact with technological systems. Errors can be triggered by technology and its environment, as a result of the way these factors interact and challenge human limitations. Byrne and Bovair (1997) found that the commission of a particular type of error, postcompletion error, is related to a high working memory load imposed by external forces or task complexity. Two experiments were designed to assess the effects of typical organizational responses to error on the commission of postcompletion errors over time. Because organizations tend to assume that errors are under the control of the individual, methods such as reprimands and re-instruction are often administered to "motivate" individuals to not commit errors. Similarly, praise is often administered to encourage the continuation of appropriate behavior. A systems perspective, however, would argue that a troublesome task should be redesigned to accommodate the limitations of the human cognitive system under certain circumstances. The results of the experiments reported here indicated that, over time, simple tasks were learned so well that people made few errors, and therefore, responses to error appeared to have little effect on the commission of error. It was found, however, that when a task was redesigned, participants were much quicker at executing a critical redesigned task step than participants who were reprimanded, received re-instruction, or were praised for their performance. This indicates that the cost of low-error performance for these participants came at the cost of increased time to complete the critical step, further indicating that these participants had to consciously expend effort to not commit the error.Item Unknown Evaluation of simulated automotive displays using a dual-task methodology(1992) Mayer, David Louis, III; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.Modern automotive instrument panels are often equipped with numeric readout and digital bargraph displays instead of traditional analog displays. An informal survey of 1990 model cars revealed wide disparity in automotive displays. Three major classes of displays were in use: (1) traditional analog, (2) binary indicators, and (3) readout displays. The present work reports results from four experiments of display monitorability. Twelve computer-simulated displays were designed for evaluation by dual-task methodology. Subjects were required to maintain performance on a demanding tracking task while monitoring configurations of four-displays for "critical readings." Subjects' latencies to respond to such readings and their tracking error scores were collected. Experiment 1 examined displays in homogeneous clusters. Orientation, configuration and class were studied. Experiment 2 compared displays in heterogeneous configurations. Experiment 3 studied the addition of color to the displays to facilitate the detection of a critical reading. Static color (i.e., a "red zone") was added to the analog displays while dynamic color was added to the bargraph displays. Finally, Experiment 4 examined the effect of check-readable layouts for analog and bargraph displays. Older subjects were slower to respond to all displays and exhibited poorer tracking performance. They also had more variability than younger subjects on both of these measures. This result was likely due to age-related slowing rather than changes in cognitive processes. No class of displays studied emerged as superior, but the binary indicator (a modified warning lamp) generated the fastest responses. Although no evidence was found for effects of orientation, configuration or check-readability, support was found for color facilitation. Male subjects tended to respond faster when static color was present, and age-related facilitation was found for dynamic color. The addition of dynamic color to displays monitored by subjects in the middle and older age groups approximately compensated for age-related RT decrements. It is likely that displays which incorporate dynamic color elements will be most useful for presenting rate information as well as calling attention to off-normal readings. Pending further study, it is recommended that designers use new display technology with caution.Item Unknown Factors affecting the compartmentalization of punitive and compensatory damages(2003) Paige, Danielle L.; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.This study examines the effects of the amount of pain and suffering awards, the recipient of the punitive award, and the inclusion company profit information on the compartmentalization of punitive damage awards. Participants (N = 245) read three personal injury scenarios, filled out a demographic and attitudinal survey, and awarded punitive damages for each scenario. Results revealed that when profit information was not given, participants exhibited leakage effects. That is, participants awarded significantly more punitive damages when pain and suffering was high and significantly less when it was low in the absence of profit information. When profit information was present, however, there was no effect of the level of pain and suffering; participants compartmentalized their punitive damage decisions. Award variance was also significantly higher when pain and suffering was high and profit information absent than when profit information was given.Item Unknown Identifiability and effectiveness of graphic symbols used in warning messages(1990) Mayer, David Louis, III; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.Warning signs and labels are on many consumer products and in many public places, and in this increasingly technical world, these warning messages often provide critical information necessary to one's safety. But, many Americans cannot read English. Graphic symbols have been suggested as a means of communication with these users as well as those who can read. Three experiments regarding the effectiveness of pictograms in warnings were conducted. Experiment 1 investigated pictogram identifiability. Identification rates ranged from 2 to 95%. Experiment 2 studied pictogram communication of injury avoidance information. Pictograms did not uniformly cue this information. Experiment 3 investigated how pictograms affect hazard perception. The presence of a pictogram in a warning message was found to increase perceptions of hazard, especially where an external, easily-represented hazard referent was concerned. It is concluded that pictogram comprehension is a function of identifiability as well as injury communication and hazard perception.Item Unknown Increasing attention to and retention of warnings: The effects of container hazardousness, warning quality, and severity of injury(2000) Meingast, Melissa Ellen; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.This research examined the influence of warning quality, container hazardousness, and severity of the potential injury on attention to and retention of warning information. Warning quality and container hazardousness were manipulated as within subjects variables, severity of injury as a between subjects variable. Two levels of each variable were used, high and low. Participants viewed the four possible combinations of warning quality and container hazardousness and then responded to various questions concerning their perceptions and retention of warning information. The results demonstrated the importance of warning quality. Enhanced features such as pictorials, signal words, safety icons, and color increase warning salience and recollection of warning information. The results also indicate that the hazardousness of containers influences whether people read warning labels and subsequent reports of cautious intent. However, its influence is modified by both severity of injury and warning quality.Item Unknown Increasing the noticeability of warnings: Effects of pictorial, color, signal icon and border(1992) Young, Stephen Lee; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.Because of the importance of noticeability on subsequent comprehension and compliance to warnings, guidelines suggest increasing the salience or conspicuity of warnings. Surprisingly, little research has examined different methods of increasing the noticeability of warnings. The current research orthogonally manipulated four salience variables (pictorial, color, signal icon and border) to determine their effect on the salience of warnings. Subjects viewed 96 simulated alcohol labels on a computer, half with a warning and half without. Subjects indicated whether or not a warning was on the label and response latencies were recorded. The results showed that all four salience features produced significantly faster response times compared to their absence. More detailed analyses showed interactions between the four salience manipulations. These results demonstrate that salience features can enhance the noticeability of warning information. Moreover, it is clear that these salience manipulations interact with each other and that they should not be used indiscriminately.Item Unknown Perceived risks and injuries associated with non-use of the manual lap belt in automatic shoulder belt/manual lap belt restraint systems(1998) Lovvoll, David Richard; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.An experiment was conducted in order to explore some of the perceived risks associated with automatic shoulder belt/manual lap belt restraint systems used without buckling the manual lap belt. Participants viewed videotaped clips that combined sequences of a person entering a car and using or not using the active component of the restraint system followed by an accident. Participants were then asked to estimated the severity of injury likely suffered by a person who was involved in that accident given the seat belt use they viewed. Participants did not perceive large differences in injury severity between scenarios when the manual lap belt was used and when it was not used. Additionally, participants seemed relatively unaware of the risks of submarining and ejection when the manual lap belt is not used.Item Unknown Purchase intentions for products as related to preferences for explicitness in warnings(1991) Vaubel, Kent Patrick; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.Four experiments are presented which explore consumer preferences for more detailed, or explicit warning information and the effects of such information on anticipated purchases of products. In Experiments 1 and 2, explicit and nonexplicit warning labels were presented for several common consumer products. Results of these studies indicate that products displaying nonexplicit warnings were preferred to those containing explicit warnings. However, this trend was reversed for one product, and for many products the detail with which a warning described potential consequences had little effect on anticipated purchase decisions. An attempt was made in Experiments 3 and 4 to minimize precursors to hazardousness judgements (e.g., familiarity or experience) by using fictitious products. Results of these latter two experiments indicate that regardless of the perceived benefits of an unfamiliar product or the severity, likelihood and controllability of its injuries, an overwhelming buying preference existed for explicit warnings as well as a need to provide more detailed consequence information in the warnings of such products. Overall these findings suggest that the level of detail with which a warning describes potentially harmful consequences of using a product does influence anticipated purchases when uncertainty exists about product-related danger.Item Unknown The effect on risk perception of increasing the cognitive availability of accident scenarios(1988) Godfrey, Sandra Sheen; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.Consistent biases in the perception of risk have been demonstrated by research. An imaging task was used in this study in an attempt to change those perceptions. The task consisted of sketching scenarios depicting an accident involving eight different hazards. The task effected a change in self risk ratings taken before and after the task, but the change was different for each of two groups of hazards. The hazards were divided into a high and a low group based on the pre-task self risk ratings. Lawnmower, toaster, coffee maker, and bicycle were found to be initially perceived as low risk. Pesticide, swimming pool, asbestos, and power saw were in the initially perceived high risk group. Pre-post self risk rating change scores showed an increase for the low risk group and a decrease for the high risk group. The interaction between sketching and not sketching an accident and the initial perceptions of low and high risk was significant. This finding lends hope that the accident scenario imaging method can be used to correct biases in the perception of risk of certain hazards. An additional analysis addressed the relationship between the perception of risk and other cognitions. Self risk ratings were found to be more closely related to probability estimates for injuries to self than to injury frequency estimates for the general public. Frequency and probability estimates do not tell the whole story, however, as far as risk perception is concerned. Perceptions for the severity of the consequences of an injury caused by the hazard, the catastrophic potential of the hazard, the ease of imagining an injury caused by the hazard, and the extent of exposure to the hazard are also significantly related to the perception of risk to self presented by the hazard. Important differences were observed in this study between perception of risk for self and for others. These findings highlight important considerations in the study and measurement of risk perception which is an important part of any effort to de-bias risk perception. When risk perception is found to be biased in a potentially harmful manner, an understanding of the role of the cognitive availability of accident scenarios and how to change that availability might then be used to correct those biases.Item Unknown The effects of morality and facial attractiveness on allocations of responsibility for consumer product safety(1998) McQuilkin, Meredith L.; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.This study investigates the effects of perceived morality and facial attractiveness on jurors' allocations of responsibility in a civil litigation context. Confronted with uncertainty, jurors may focus less on the factual evidence presented and more on peripheral cues. It was hypothesized that jurors will attribute more responsibility to a bad individual compared to a good person, and unattractive consumers will be allocated more responsibility for an accident than their attractive counterparts. Results indicate perceived morality significantly influences responsibility allocations. Bad people were given more responsibility than good people. Although unattractive consumers were given more responsibility than attractive consumers the difference was not statistically significant. Finally, allocations to the consumer and manufacturer differed depending upon the products used in each scenario, indicating that responsibility allocations to consumers are related to the type of product. Implications for civil litigation include the awareness that jurors decisions are influenced by the type of product and subjective information about the consumer.Item Unknown The influence of container shape and color cues on consumer product risk perception and precautionary intent(1999) Serig, Elizabeth May; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.Four experiments were carried out to examine the extent to which the container shape and color of a consumer product package influence hazard perceptions of that product. The experiments further examined the extent to which consumer product hazard perception influenced consumer precautionary intent. The first experiment demonstrated that participants could design product packages signaling the identity and potential hazard level of the contents. Experiments 2 and 3 validated the results of Experiment 1. Experiment 3 further introduced the concept of precautionary intent; participants were more likely to express precautionary intent for those products perceived as being more hazardous. Experiment 4 examined whether these stated intentions would be acted upon when participants were asked to actually interact with a product; it was found that participants were more likely to engage in precautionary behaviors than had been indicated in Experiment 3.Item Unknown The risk-taking personality: Comparing three measures used to evaluate different types of risk takers(1999) Lovvoll, David Richard; Laughery, Kenneth R., Sr.Three different measures of risk taking were compared to examine the support for a unitary trait of risk taking. The measures included the Sensation Seeking Scale, an experimental lottery, and a consumer product/activity risk perception questionnaire. The measures were administered to groups of subjects believed to differ in different types of risk taking propensity: gamblers, scuba divers, and students. Although differences between the subject groups were demonstrated on the individual measures, relationships between the measures were quite weak. These results indicate that references to risk taking behavior should be specified as applying to certain individual activities.